years ago, when they supposedly
disappeared. This period allegedly
began when the endocranial volume
of the Neandertals reached an average
that was larger than that of humans
living today. For example, a Neandertal
skull found in 1978 in Reilingen,
Germany, showed an endocranial
volume of 1,430 ml, with an estimated
weight of 1. 36 kg, whereas the brain
volume of H. heidelbergensis ranged
between 1, 100 and 1,350 ml, with
an estimated weight of 1.05–1.28 kg
(p. 77). Besides this, Neandertals had
a prominent ridge above the eyes,
broad noses, and large jaws, with no
chin, as well as an occipital torus and
a suprainaic fossa. Their teeth were
also found to be worn down (p. 77–78).
Having such a large brain, even
larger than that of modern humans,
makes it hard to deny that Neandertals
were intelligent. One of the main
themes of the book is that it describes
in detail certain areas of evidence
which indicate that Neandertals had
cognitive capabilities quite like those
of modern humans.
For example, a pile of concentrated
mammoth and rhinoceros bones was
found underneath a cliff overhang at
La Cotte de St Brelade on what is now
the island of Jersey, but was then a
peninsula of Normandy. Researchers
speculate that this could have been the
end of a ‘drive lane’, similar to what
some American Indians use when funnelling their prey in the direction of,
and over, a cliff. These Indians plan
a route in which they drive their prey,
bursting forth at certain strategic points
to keep the animals moving. Such
evidence indicates that Neandertals
could have been capable of forward
planning, whereby they choreographed their moves when hunting animals
(p. 80–81).
Many primate and bird species are
capable of using simple tools for cer-
tain purposes, but higher intelligence is
manifested in the way in which Nean-
dertals used special tools to make other
kinds of tools. Such tool-making tools
were used to strike flakes off of a stone
core, flake by flake, until a sharp edge
was produced, which could be used as
a spear tip. The French archaeologist
François Bordes (aka Francis Carsac,
1919–1981) classified Neandertal tools
into 63 tool types, 21 of which were
a variety of ‘side scrapers’, which
consisted of long blades or flakes whi-
ch had been continuously retouched
(p. 96). Furthermore, there is recent
evidence that Neandertals used pen-
dants, pigments, and adhesives to form
composite tools (p. 155).
A larger brain implies a greater
neocortex size, which was necessary
for socialization. Neandertals could
have possibly hunted in groups. The
fact that their remains were found in
caves suggests that they led social
lives, which in turn also implied that
they used language to communicate
with each other. Language is supposed
to have arisen at a suprisingly early
evolutionary age of some 500,000
years ago (p. 101), or even earlier,
with H. heidelbergensis. Neandertal
remains found in 1982 at Kebara,
Israel, dated to 60,000 years ago,
included a modern-looking hyoid bone,
which is an essential component of
vocal architecture (p. 115). Neandertals
also had a copy of the FOXP2 gene
in their genome (p. 170), with a
sequence that is exactly the same
as that of modern humans, which is
necessary for the fine motor skills,
coordination, and executive function
needed for producing a large variety
of sounds during speech. Mutations in
the FOXP2 gene lead to motor-related
speech problems. 2
One of the areas where Neandertals
and modern humans mixed was in the
Middle East, based on fossils and
what strongly appear to be burial
sites in Israel, such as Qafzeh and
Skhul, where modern humans were
buried, with an evolutionary age of
90–135,000 years. Neandertal remains
from Amud and Kebara, Israel, were
were shown to have an evolutionary
age of only 50–60,000 years ago.
In fact, the supposedly last living
Neandertal, dated at 20,000 years old,
came from Tabun, Israel. These dates
overturn the idea that modern humans
came later than Neandertals whom
they conquered.
Another characteristic of both
modern humans and Neandertals is
what kind of shelter they used, and
how they cared for their dead. As
mentioned, Neandertal remains have
been found inside caves; this would
indicate a desire to preserve the
remains of the deceased, as compared
to that of animals, who merely leave
their dead out in the open. The cave
at Atapuerca is not necessarily an
example of intentional burial, since
the remains were not buried in a
grave, but were deposited down
a long shaft. However, recently, a
number of Neandertal burial sites
have been discovered, accompanied by
ornamentation, usage of pigments, and
intentional burial with grave goods. 3
Blombos Cave, in South Africa,
contains artefacts dated to an
evolutionary age of 100,000 years, in
the form of ornaments, such as mollusk
shell beads, fishing paraphernalia, and
items used in stone tool manufacture.
Other ornaments include bird talons.
What is interesting is the presence
of red ochre in this cave, as well as
what appeared to be a painting tool
kit, and a processing workshop. Red
ochre painting was also discovered
in a cave in Gibraltar in a crosshatch
fashion, the first Neandertal ‘hashtag’.
Shanidar Cave in Iraq contained
remains of ten Neandertals, one of
which displayed signs of partially
healed wounds caused by some sort of
trauma. Another Neandertal individual
had been intentionally buried, and the
grave covered by ornamental flowers.
Thus, art and ornamentation could
have also been part of Neandertal
culture and society.
